Coastal Protection Measures

Hard engineering


Seawalls

to protect the coast from being eroded, people have built seawalls in front of the cliff or along the coast

It is usually made out of concrete which absorb the energy of the waves and protect the coast against strong waves, especially during the storm

however, the wave energy is directed downwards, to the base of the seawall

causing it weaken and collapse

hence, seawalls have to be carefully maintain

And it is not cheap !

Breakwaters

breakwater are built off coast but parallel to it.

It is usually made of granite

it creates a zone between shallow water and the coast itself

so that water will break against it before reaching the coast

Disadvantage: it leaves other parts of the beach unprotected.

Groynes

Built right angle to the beach

it enable sediments to build up one one side.

however, the other side will be eroded.

and the long shore drift will not be able to reach it

Thus further down the beach might me eroded away

To solve it , more groynes can be build

but IT SUPER UGLY !

Gabions

Are also used to protect river banks

also used to protect other coastal protection

e.g. seawall.

however,gabions are easily destroyed by powerful waves

The wires also rust easily due to the salt in the sea water

It is also very ugly

it has a short life span of less then 15 years

However, it is the cheapest method.

Soft engineering



Stabilizing coastal dunes

Coastal dunes are great for protecting human property that is near the coast.

examples houses and roads.

natural vegetation are found in dune to make them stable

however due to human activity, dunes have became unstable

Sands Unstable dunes can blow inland and effect people's life.

to stabilize the dunes, more vegetation can be grown.

activity also needs to be minimized

Planting Mangroves along the shore

protect the coast from erosion by strong waves and harsh wind

mangrove trees have prop or kneed roots that can hold loose soils together.

studies have shown that countries that planted mangrove suffered less during the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

And thus many countries are planting mangrove

however, young mangrove are very vulnerable

thus the help of the local people is needed to help take care for these your plants

Beach Nourishment

This involves adding large amounts of sand to a beach that is being eroded

When the longshore drift bring sediments down the beach,

people bring in sands from other areas to replace the sand lost

this is a very expensive method as beach quality sand is super expensive

and regular maintenance is needed

this method can only last for about 10 years

Encourage growth of coral reef

coral reefs are masses of rock-like substance growing in shallow seas

They reduces speed of the waves approaching the coast and thus protect the beach.

however due to human activities, these reef are destroy

Water pollution made it worse for them to grow as they need clear water

Some country came up with ways to encourage growth for coral reef

e.g Malaysia ban fishing the protected area

however for these methods to work, the people have to cooperate.

Coast

So sorry like SO long never post already. Have been busy with study. However, I back ! :D
For Geography, I guess you can buy guide books then helps you summaries the whole book. Here I'm using Fairfield Book Publishers' Q&A G.C.E 'o' level Elective Geography topic by topic.



It's really great ! :D I'm also using Mrs Lily Lim Notes [used to be Deyi teacher]{also known as Ben's notes} and my personal notes so if there is any mistake, I'm sorry ! :D

Coast
Definition: A coast is the part of the land which meets the sea and interacts with it. It is always changing sue to coastal processes which shapes it constantly.

Coastal erosion

Factors affecting size of wind

Wind Energy

Greater Pressure → Greater Wind speed → Greater wind energy → Larger Waves

Duration Of wind

longer time → bigger waves

Fetch [Distance]

definition:The distance over which winds blow across open water to form waves.
Longer distance→bigger waves

tides & currents as agents of erosion

Tides are daily changes in sea level due to the movement of the moon and the sun.

A coast experience high tide and low tide every 12 hours

Currents are flows of water that move either horizontally or vertically

Types of waves

Constructive waves

→ Swash is stronger then backwash
→ More materials are deposited
→ builds up the coast
→ occurs on gentle sloping coast
→ break gently with little energy

Destructive Waves

→ backwash is strong then swash
→ More materials are removed instead of deposited
→ steeply sloping coast
→ break violently with high energy

how to remember?
Backwash:backward movement of waves [move backwards take away]

Swash: Forward movement of wave [move forward deposit]

Transportation

[ignore the spelling mistake]

Wave approaches the coast at an oblique angle

The swash brings the sediments up onto the coast at an oblique angle

the backwash then carries the sediments back to the sea at a right angle

This is due to the influence of gravity

This produces a zig-zag movement along the shoreline which transport sediments from west to east producing a long shore drift

Landforms

Questions normally starts with: With a well labeled diagram, explain how (insert land form here) is formed

Please do not explain with out diagram

Diagrams are really important and they cost 6 marks or more !

there are 5 land forms. the textbook only wrote 4.

Cliff And shore platform

A cliff is formed when waves repeatedly pound against a rocky coast,

This weakens the rocks, causing line of weakness to form in the rock face

Overtime,the waves erode the coast to cut a notch along the lines of weakness

the notch may be further eroded to form a cave.

The overhanging part of the notch or cave eventually collapses with repeated pounding of the waves .

the part of the coast that is left forms a cliff.

As cliff continue to be eroded by the wave, it retreats inland

over time ,a gently sloping or falt surface called the wave-cut platform is formed

Head land and bay

the coast line consist of parallel bands of hard and soft rock which are perpendicular to the sea

the less resistant rocks gets eroded faster

while the more resistant rocks get eroded more slowly.

As less resistant rocks are constantly being eroded they curve inwards forming bays

The more resistant rocks protrude out forming headlands.

wave refraction[bending of waves] occurs as waves approaches the headland and bay

Wave energy is concentrated on headland causing erosion to occur.

While wave energy weakens and deposit sedments on the bay.

The headlands get eroded back

the bay get more deposition and form beaches

Overtime, the coastline will become a straight line again and the whole process of differential erosion will occur again.

Beaches

A beach is an area on the coast where sediments are accumulated.

These sediments are fine sand,gravel or shingle

The sediments are deposited by waves,tides or current

beaches made up of coarse material tend to be steeper.

this is due to the strong swash that deposit the on the coast

the backwash is unable yo carry them back into the sea

Beaches made up of sand and fine material tend to me gental sloping

Beaches are constantly changing its shape and size.

during stormy days beaches are eroded more quickly due to destructive waves

during clam weathers beaches are build up by constructive waves

spit and tomobolo

Long shore current deposits materials along the coastline where there is shallow and sheltered water.

Material are deposited in the direction of the long shore drift

Overtime, the accumulation of sediments will form a long narrow ridge mainly made of sand

with one end attached to main land and the other extending out to sea.

This is know as a spit

As the spit continue to extend seaward, it may join with an offshore island that is nearby

forming a tombolo

Caves,Arches,Stacks and stumps
# waves attack a crack in a headlands
# This enlarged to form a cave by the pounding of the waves compressing air in the rock face
# and by abrasion where materials carried by water is flung against the cliff
# the cave is made bigger
# if there is one on either side if headlands, an arch will result when they join
# As further erosion takes place, the arc eventually collapse
# the seaward end of the arch will form a stack
# Further erosion takes place and a stump is formed which can only be seen at low tide

Governance

Anticipating Change and Staying Relevant

Anticipating Chang and Staying Relevant is an important guiding principle for contributing to sustain Singapore’s future success.

The government needs to take risks and make decisions that are forward-looking in anticipation of future challenges.

For future water needs, the government has taken steps to ensure that Singapore is self-sufficient in water supply.

This has been done through producing ‘NEWater’ and desalinated water.

Another example would be how, through the decision to build two integrated Resorts, the government has taken bold steps to help Singapore capture the growing tourist market in the face of rising competition.

At the individual level, students can stretch their potentials by coming up with creative and innovative ideas. Workers too could play their part by upgrading their knowledge and skills to stay employable and contribute to the nation

Thus by anticipating change and staying relevant, Singapore can look forward to the challenges of the future with confidences.

Leadership is Key.

Leadership is key is a very important guiding principle of governance that

care is taken to select leaders that have outstanding personal qualities such as honesty, moral courage, integrity, and in addition,talent.

Potential leaders are specially selected and groomed.

Singapore needs good leadership not only in government but also in every segment of the society.

For example, the arts scene in Singapore made progress more vibrant arts scene.

Thus, leadership is most important if Singapore would like to continue to prosper and face up to the challenges that might come its way.

Good leaders will inspire the people and thus be able to carry the people with them when decisions (even tough and less popular ones) are made for the good of the country, thereby sustaining Singapore’s future success.

Reward for Work and Work for Reward.

‘Reward for Work and Work for Reward’ is an important guiding principle of government. Underlying this principle is the belief in meritocracy.

Meritocracy means a system that rewards hard work and talent.

Meritocracy helps to give everybody in society an equal opportunity to achieve their best and be rewarded for their performance, regardless of race, religion and socio-economic background.

for example hardworking students who excel in their studies and co-curricular activities receive rewards in the form of Edusave Scholarship and Merit Bursaries.

All Singaporeans also received a share of the surplus from Singapore’s growth through the Progress Package.

Thus, this principle encourages people to continue to work hard to help Singapore.

A Stake for Everyone, Opportunities for All

‘A Stake for Everyone, Opportunities for All’ is another important guiding principle of governance.

This means allowing people more opportunities to get involved in the decision-making process.

Such participating would lead to people feeling a deeper sense of belonging to the country.

For example, the government consulted the public on the issue of having casinos as part of the IRs.

Thus, by allowing the people more opportunities to participate in important decision-making,

a stronger bond is built between the people and the country.

This will help to keep the people actively involved with the government and supportive of the decisions made by the government, thereby sustaining Singapore’s future success.

credit to Lemond

Salt

Salts

A salt is produced when an acid reacts with a base.

click to enlarge.

click to enlarge

Based on Solubility, Salt can be prepared in 3 different methods

filtration, titration, precipitation.

Soluble Salts.

Filtration Method [for acid+insoluble salt ; acid+metal carbonate]

Click to enlarge.

just change the substance use but basically that's the method.

Not suitable Very reactive metals like potassium,sodium and calcium.

Because these metal reacts violently with acid,so the reaction is DANGEROUS!

Not suitable for Unreactive metals such as copper and sliver.

Because this reaction uses dilute acid, unreactive metal not react with diluted acid.

Titration Method

click to enlarge.

Insoluble Salts.

Click to enlarge.

Chemistry- Acids,Bases

[RAWR... don't like type chemistry... must type subscript and superscript]
Acids

Acids have pH value of less then 7

Natural acids are mile and not corrosive

Man-made acids are stronger.

Acids form H⁺ ions when dissolved in water

All Acid contain hydrogen

Example of typical Acid

H⁺+(SO₄)^2- → H₂SO₄ → sulfuric acid

H⁺+(NO₃)^- → HNO₃ → nitric acid

H⁺+(CO₃)^2- → H₂CO₃ → Carbonic Acid

H⁺+(F,Cl,Br,I,At)^-{Known as halides}→Name+ide Acid[Chloride Acid]

CH₃COOH (vinegar)

Properties Of Acid

Sour

Dissolve in water to form solutions

Conduct electricity

Turn blue litmus paper red

Hydrogen ions are responsible for the acidic properties

Bases

Any metal plus oxide or hydroxide is a base[ metal + O or metal + (OH^-)]

There is two types of Bases

Soluble and Insoluble.

Have A bitter Taste and soapy feel

Turn Red litmus paper blue

Hydroxide ions when dissolved in water

Soluble Base.[Alkali]

there are five types of Alkali

NaOH

KOH

Ca(OH)₂

Ba(OH)₂

NH₃

Types of oxides
1.Acidic Oxides

Non-metal oxides.

number of oxygen must be more than one

exist as gaseous state

DO NOT react with acid

react with alkalis

dissolve in water to form acid.

2.Basic Oxides

Often solid

Insoluble in water

alkalis are soluble

React with acid to form salt & water

3.Amphoteric Oxides [Aluminum, Zinc,Lead]

Metallic oxides that react with both acids and bases to form salt & Water

4.Natural Oxides

non-metal formed oxides

neither basic or acidic

insoluble in water

pH scale

click to enlarge.

Importance Of pH scale

If the pH scale of the substance injected is different from your blood, you may die.

pH of soil affects the growth of plants

fishes also need different pH value of water

To control acidity, chemicals are added.

liming is done to soil which are acidic.

liming is the process of adding quick lime[calcium oxide] or slake lime [calcium hydroxide]


I'll type salt another day cause salt got alot points....
Preview :D
Salt

Rivers

Rivers in ‘bank full’ stage

It is the flow stage of a river in which the stream completely fills its channel and the elevation of the water surface coincides with the bank margins.

Channelization

Channelization is the process of changing the natural course of a river in order to make it flow in a specific path so as to reduce the possibility of flooding. In order for this to happen, various engineering methods are used to alleviate the problems of flooding.

Types of channelization

Channel managements are carried out to facilitating navigation, regulating the speed of river, protecting the river banks against erosion and controlling floods by managing the volume and speed of flow of water. There are 4 methods used, they are river re-alignment, river resectioning, vegetation planting and bank protection.

River re-alignment

The straightening of the river channels removes meanders and reduces the length of the river channel. It also increases the speed of flow, reducing friction. And because of this increase in the speed of flow, sediments get washed off easily. The river re-alignment involves the deepening, flattening and smoothening the river channels. An example of this is the Kallang and Singapore rivers. The advantages of this method it is that is able to hold more water. Thus reduces incidence of flooding in the upper part of the stream. Another advantage of this is that the speed of the river is able to carry flood water away quickly. However, the disadvantage of this method is that it is too costly and it cannot prevent large floods and it also increases the erosion of the river channels due to the increase in velocity.

Re-sectioning

Re-sectioning involves the widening and deepening of the channel it increases the channel’s ability to hold more water and decreases incidence of floods. Therefore, more surface runoffs enter the rivers. River banks and beds are replaced with cement and granite, this causes less friction between water and river bed and banks allowing the speed of flow to increase. The water flows away from the area faster. This method is usually used in urban areas to alleviate flooding.

Bank protection

Bank protection is built to prevent floods and reduces soil erosion along the banks. This process involves building artificial levees / dykes / embankments on the sides of river channel to increase the height of the river bank to contain flood waters. Walls of sand, stone, or concrete increase channel capacity to hold water but it is not very effective (built up of sediments on river bed, channel becomes shallower). Building gabions or revetments protects the river banks from being eroded while reducing the amount of sediments washed into rivers.

Planting Vegetation

Roots of trees and other plants hold the soil together firmly this protects the river banks, reduces amount of eroded sediments, Slows down the rate of surface runoff. It also prevents large amounts of water from entering river at one time as the roots of the trees absorbs the water in the river. The disadvantage of this however is that excessive shade prevents sunlight from reaching the river bed, killing aquatic plant and animal life. The destruction of habitats is due to the building of concrete banks. This is ineffective in urban areas and time is needed for these trees to mature.

Genetically Modified Food. [GM food]

Some of the words are linked to their Wikipedia page. Any question, comment in tag broad :)

Definition

GM food is food from plants that have been genetically altered to create desired qualities

These qualities include improved resistance to diseases and tolerance to herbicide or extreme water

Different From High-yielding varieties [HYV] !!!! Do not mix them up !

HYV are cross-breed. While GM food is genetically modified.

To make things clearer. Here are some pictures.

This is a picture of GM food. Genes from other living things [maybe from plants,fruit,animal etc.] are inserted into the plant.



This is an example of HYV. Mixing the pollen of the plants to create a better one.



An out come would be this: A seedless watermelon.

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Benefits
Increase Income for Farmers

Genetically Modified [GM] Crops are pest-resistance and therefore reducing damage of crops.

They do not need to spend money buying pesticide.

Expenses go down, Revenue Increase

GM crops are tolerant to extreme water

Which reduce loss during floods.

They are also created to stay fresh for a longer period of time

This enable farmers to sell their products in other country; increasing revenue.

Increase Food supply

GM crops are able to produce more crops compared to normal crops

e.g Normal crop- 100 ; GM crops- 200.

One Example of such crops is Super Rice.

Which is modified to produce double of what is normally produced

Improve nutritional value of food

GM food might be modified to have higher nutritional values.

e.g Golden rice have been modified with beta-carotene[ inactive form of vitamin A].

to supply the lack of vitamin A in rice diet in LDCs.

Due to the lack of vitamin A in the past,

1 Million children died and 350 000 became blind.

Golden rice can help reduce malnutrition cases.

Scientist are still try to use GM food as medicine. If they succeed we don't have to go through painful injections and eat bitter medicine ! :D

Reduce environmental pollution

Without GM food, Farmers would have to use pesticide to kill pests

This is NOT good ! It adds on to the pollution of this world.

GM food reduces the reliance on chemicals.

One Example is the pest-resistant plant, which remove the needs of pesticide

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Threat
Potential health risk

Allergic reaction.

Example-Lectin. → a protein used in beans

Prevents aphids from attacking potato. but some people are allergic to it.

For those who don't know what is aphids. They look like this:

The people fear of eating food that are not natural

European Union [EU] has banned the import and cultivation of GM food crops.

Even Zambia,a country facing food shortage, rejected GM food

GM food are usually not labeled, therefore the concern.

Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the range and variety of animals in the ecosystem

GM crops that are pest-resistance may kill other animals or insects that are not harmful and upset the ecosystem

e.g Monarch butterfly's caterpillar feeds on corn

The corn may have added toxin that may kill the butterfly.

Animals that may feed on the butterfly, lost their source of food as too many butterfly die

As a result, they all die... X(

Loss of natural species

Pollen form GM plants was carried by the wind or insects

to another place where natural plants are found.

Offspring of normal plant would now have the GM plants genes, if this continue there will be no more natural plants

and as a result kill animals feeding on them [refer to loss of biodiversity]

GM food crops may be herbicide-resistant.

Genes may be passed on to the weeds around those plant

Producing Super weeds

which are damn hard to get rid of.

Stronger herbicide have to be used to get rid of them

but they might absorb and become even stronger. :(

Maths notes

In case for some reasons you don't have it. Print it out if you want :)

Chinese Letter Writting Format

公函

Own Address

Count 8 Box And Write The Address

_ _ _ 先生/小姐/女士
Reciever's Address
Surname Position:

Title

Content Of Letter
谢谢！

Own Name[Count 8 Box ]启
Date

---

私涵

Own Address
Count 8 Box And Write The Address

Name Of Person You Writing to:
Content Of Letter



祝你，
身体健康/身活愉快

Your Name
date

Northern Ireland

Map Of Ireland And Northern Ireland


Beautiful Castle in Ireland


Causes-
Divided Loyalties

The Protestant Regard themselves as British and want to remain part of UK.

They celebrated the battle of Boyne where the protestant king of England defeated the catholic ex king of England

The Catholics want to be part of the Republic of Ireland.

They remember the long struggle for home rule by the Irish against the British.

This meant that the two communities were proud of their own achievement and were not willing to compromise with the other party.

This brought about distrust and misunderstanding leading to conflict.

Education System

Protestant children attended government school while Catholics children attended private school.

Protestant children are taught British history and played British sports like hockey and rugby.

They are loyal to the British.

Catholic children are taught Irish history and played Irish sports like hurling.

They are loyal to Ireland.

There are privately run mixed schools but these are not popular.

As they study in different schools, children from these two communities do not get to meet each other.

This meant that they grew up with distrust and hatred for one another.

This make them hostile with one another, leading to conflict.

Employment

The Catholics ,although are academically qualified, were not able to get a job as easily as the Protestants.

There were fewer Catholics in the senior position in the public sectors.

The number of civil servant were not proportionate to the number in the country.

Catholics were rejected due to religion

Catholics felt that they were discriminated against.

This made them believe that the government is biased and only care for the Protestant.

Thus went against the government, leading to conflict.

Housing

City councils providing houses to the people consist largely of protestant.

Priority was given to the Protestant in the provision of houses.

In 1968, 71% of the house in Dungannon were given to the Protestant although 53% of the people were Catholics.

The Catholics were frustrated as they had to wait for a longer time to get their house

They thought that the government was biased and hated the government leading to conflict.

Voting

Each household was entitled 2 votes

Companies were entitled to more votes depending on their size.

Many big company was owned by the rich Protestant.

End up having more votes than the Catholics.

Since more Protestant get to vote, the Catholics were worried that more protestant would come to power.

The Catholics thought that the government was biased, leading to conflict.

---

Roles-
Catholic People in Northern Ireland

Organized by the Civil Rights Movement in mid 1960s and early 1970s.

To demand for equal rights and to protect against unfair treatment of the Catholics.

Demands for basic rights like housing, jobs,education and voting.

1972 civil rights march was faced with violent shooting by the British Army.

Faced violent response from the Protestant and the police.

IRA[Irish Republican Army]

Illegal Organization formed largely by Northern Irish Catholic.

Aim to use violence to drive the British Army out of Northern Ireland.

Responsible for deaths of 2/3 of the more than 3500 people killed through violence from 1969 to 1993

Protestant People in Northern Ireland.

Unhappy with the Civil Rights Movement by the Catholics

Responded to the movement violently.

Petrol-bombed Catholics' homes in the middle of the night, forcing Catholics to flee

Local Police did not do anything to stop the acts of Protestant

Police in Northern Ireland - Mainly Protestant.

Local Police DID NOTHING to stop the Protestants' Actions.

British Army - mainly protestant

Aug 1969: British Army units were send to Northern Ireland to help keep order

They were initially seen as protectors by the Catholics

Search Catholics' home and arrested suspects

Did not take action against Protestants

The Catholics lost faith in the British Army

1972: shot at the peaceful civil right march.

killed 13 civilians and wounded many more.

know as bloody Sunday

---

Consequences-
Innocent people affected

Many of the Catholics and Protestants were not directly involved in the conflict

They want to live their life as per normal.

However, with the conflict most of the people were affected were innocent people

People killed from 1969 to 1977 due to violence were not directly involved in the violence

People grew with prejudice

The Protestant and Catholics received a different education, each praising their own and condemning the deeds of the other

The violence in the country also mean that the two groups of people believe that

their own people were right

and the other party was responsible for the conflict in Northern Ireland

This led to growth of hatred and prejudice between the two group of people

With increased hostility, violence continued to rise

Economic Slow down

Prior to the conflict, many overseas companies invested in Northern Ireland

Tourists came to the country as the country was attractive and peaceful

Both foreign investment and tourism decline as people were

afraid for their safety and did not want to come to Northern Ireland

This reduce the revenue for Northern Ireland, leading to economic slowdown.

Bonding Singapore: Challenges of multi ethnic diversity

Bonding Singapore: Challenges of multi ethnic diversity

Managing perceptions of different racial groups:
The lack of understanding among different racial groups can create suspicion and resentment among people too. This may lead to outbreaks of violence among the people. For example, when Singapore was still part of Malaysia, different political approaches were adopted by the Singapore state government and the federal government with regards to special privileges received by the Malays led to racial riots in Singapore. This happened due to suspicion, distrust and even hostility among the people. Hence, any instigation can trigger off conflicts in Singapore.

Managing Perceptions of different religious groups:
Difference in religious beliefs and practices can be used to create tension among the people in Singapore. Sensitivity to other races is essential to preserve religious harmony in Singapore. If a group perceives that it is not treated fairly, then Singapore’s peace will be shattered. For example, in the Maria Hertogh case in the 1950s, the British legal system was deemed to have been unfair to the Muslims after the court has awarded the custody of Maria to her biological parents. The court’s decision meant that Maris would have to annul her marriage. This then sparked off a series of riots which led the government to place a 24hr curfew for 2 weeks. The decision caused much unhappiness to the Muslim community. This caused the Muslim community to feel that their culture and welfare were not looked into. Thus, from the above example, it can be proven that if the different perceptions of the religious groups are not managed well, there can be a possibility of conflicts in Singapore.

Threats from external forces:
Threats from external forces can be used to cause possible conflicts in Singapore. This is especially so for multi ethnic Singapore. For example, between 2001-2002, there were 34 JI members who were arrested under the internal security act for their in-terrorist related activities, which included the plans to bomb the US embassy in Singapore and some other buildings such as the Ministry of Education. The Muslim leaders condemned the JI group in union and emphasized that it did not have the support of the Muslim community. Singapore, being multi-ethnic in nature is especially susceptible to external events that create ill feelings among the different ethnic groups, in return threatening the racial and religious harmony in the country. If that was not done to clarify the situation, then it could have led to suspicion among the various ethnic groups, causing tension and maybe eventual conflicts.


Bonding Singapore: Management of ethnic diversity

Building a national identity:
There were efforts taken by the government to forge a national identity among the Singaporeans. One of them is carrying out common practices which are actions that Singaporeans carry out daily. Common practices such as singing the national anthem, reciting the pledge and participating in the flag raising ceremony are examples of common practices carried out in schools. The policy of bilingualism where students are expected to learn English and their own mother tongue facilitates interaction among different ethnic groups. As such, common practices help to foster national identity as they instill loyalty and national pride towards Singapore. This is one way to get Singaporeans to see themselves as one people and this will promote social cohesion in Singapore.

Safeguarding the interests of minority representation:
There are also other measures taken by the government to promote social cohesion in Singapore, such as ensuring minority representation in parliament. An example of this is the Group Representation Constituency (GRC) which ensures that at least one of the candidates in the team contesting in the General Election is from the minority group such as the Malays, Indians or Eurasian. The GRC ensures that the minority groups are represented in the parliament. As a result, the minority is given the opportunity to express their views and no group is at a disadvantage. In this way, the concerns and needs of the minority is made known to the government. This will promote social cohesion as everyone feels that their opinions are valued and heard.

Developing common spaces:
Developing common spaces for Singaporeans to interact is also an important measure the Singapore government has to take to promote social cohesion. For example, Students from different races and religions study in educational institutions where friendships can be cultivated and strengthened. As such, friendships can be cultivated and strengthened. The experiences gained by all able- bodied men through military training.


Bonding Singapore:Building a national identity

Multi- Racialism:
The policy of multi-bilingualism promotes equality among the different races, with no special rights granted to any particular racial or religious groups. Everyone has equal opportunities to succeed, regardless of their background. Favoring a certain group because of their race or religion is prohibited by the constitution. Since everyone is seen as a valued member of the Singapore society, a sense of national identity as Singaporeans is created.

Common Practices:
Common practices are actions that Singaporeans carry out together. Singing the national anthem, reciting the pledge and participating in the flag raising ceremony are examples of common practices carried out in schools. These common practices help to foster national identity. Incalculating loyalty and national pride towards Singaporeans to see themselves as one people.

Bilingualism:
The policy of bilingualism was introduced in 1966. Students were expected to learn English and their own mother tongue. Mother tongue language is used to impart moral values and culture traditions of each race. With bilingualism, English is used as the linking language for all the ethnic groups. As English is a non-native language for all the ethnic groups, no one has an advantage over others. The use of English has helped improve communication among Singaporeans.

Bonding Singapore:Safeguarding the interests of minority groups

Minority representation:
The policy of minority representation gives minority groups a say in governance. It is also a way to safeguard the interests of the minority groups the Presidential Council of Minority Rights (PCMR), and two examples of how representation of the minority groups is achieved. The GRC ensures that at least one of the candidates in the team contesting in the General Election is from the minority racial communities such as the Malays, Indians or Eurasian. The GRC ensures that the minority groups are represented in the parliament. In this way, the concerns and needs of the people are made known to the government.

Self-help groups:
CDAC, SINDA, Mendaki and the Eurasian association play an important role in helping members of their community who are less fortunate to get aid in their studies and training for their jobs. Self-help groups also give moral support to members of their own community. This helps Singaporeans to cope and compete with one another on an equal footing. By doing so, people from the minority groups will be able to improve their social and economic position in society.


Bonding Singapore: Developing common spaces

Events and programmes organized by grassroots organizations:
Grassroots organizations such as the People’s Association (P.A) creates common spaces through their wide range of programmes and activities developed to cater to the needs and interests of every Singaporean. One of the programmes conducted for students is a home visit or home stay opportunitity with a host from another ethnic groups. This allows participants to gain a better understanding of the cultures and customs of other races. With mutual respect, strong friendships can be built over time.

Opportunities offered by educational institutions:
Educational institutions such as schools and tertiary institutions are open to every Singaporean, regardless of their race language or religion. Students from different race and religion study together. The daily interaction that takes place among students during lessons and school activities provides an opportunity for friendships to be cultivated and strengthened as can be seen in their CCAs. The variety of activities conducted during CCA provides opportunities for students to work closely with and understand one another.

Common spaces provided by public housing:
In the 1980s, it was observed that there were too many people from the same racial group living in the same housing estate. This situation could hinder the social bonding among people from the different races. In 1986, the ethnic intergraded policy was introduced. It puts a limit on the proportion of races in every neighborhoods and block. The ethnic integration policy ensures that there is an even distribution of different races in all the housing estates.

Activities conducted by IRCCs & HCs:
The inter-racial confidence circle (IRCCs) was introduced in January 2002 to provide the common spaces to foster greater inter-racial understanding. One of the activities carried out by the IRCC is visits to places of worship. At the workplace, the inter-racial and inter-religious activities are carried out by the HCs. These activities create opportunities for the Singaporeans to appreciate their difference and develop strong bonds among different ethnic and religious communities. All these activities help to build confidence and friendship among people.

Shared experiences through national service:
In 1967, Singapore requires all able-bodied men to serve in the defense of the country. They go through military training together and build enduring friendships regardless of their background, race, religion, and culture. The shared experiences, for example, going through military training during national service, help to strengthen the bond among the men. Through at least 2 years of military training together where they go through thick and thin in the army has certainly helped to bond the national men together.

Physics Notes - Chapter 1- Chapter 6

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Force
-Measured In Newton[n]
-Can Cause The Object To Move,Change Speed Or Direction.[Newton 1st Law]

Balance Forces


When The Forces Is Balanced There is No Resultant Force
-If It is not moving it will stay at rest
-if it is moving it will continue to move at constant speed.

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Unbalanced Force

It Will Cause
a)A Stationary Object To Move
b)A Moving Object to
-Stop Moving
-Change Direction
-Move Faster
-Slow Down

[Newton 2nd Law]
-Force=Mass X Acceleration

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Free-body Diagram
Newton Third Law Says:
For Every Action There Is Another Equal Opposite Reaction

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Friction



Friction Is Good As It Make Things Able To Move
But Friction Is Bad Because It Wear And Tear Thing

Reduce Friction By:
-Adding lubricant
-Adding Ball And Roller Bearing etc

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Mass
-Mass(kg) is a measure of the amount of substance in the object
-Weight(N) is the force of gravity acting upon that object

Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity
W = mg

On Earth, acceleration of free fall
g = 10 m s−2
Mass measured by beam balance and electronic balance.
Weight is measured by spring balance.

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Inertia and Mass
-Inertia of an object is the reluctance of the object to change either its state or rest, or if it is moving, its motion in a straight line.
-Newton’s first law of motion states that a body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by a force to do otherwise

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Density.

SI Unit=Kg m-3

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Moments
Moment=Force X Distance
Pivot is the turning poing also known as fulcrum.

Principle Of Moment



If The Object On The Right Is The Same As The Left,
-The Anticlockwise moment= Clockwise Moment

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Center Of Gravity
-IS A Point Where The Weight In The Object Seems To Act On


It Might Not Be In The Center.
-If The Mass In An Object Is Heavier at The Top,The Center Of Gravity Is Higher.

-If The Mass In An Object Is Heavier at The Bottom,The Center Of Gravity Is Lower.

-For Uniformed Object,The Center Of Gravity Is In The Center.

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Stability
There is 3 Kind Of Stability


There Are Two Ways To Make Something More Stable.
-Increase The Aase Area
-Lower The Center of Gravity By Adding Something Heavy To The Bottom.

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Pressure[Not Needed For NA]
-Is The Amount Of Force That Is Acting On A Unit Area Of The Object.

Pressure=Force/Area
SI Unit Pascals[Pa] Or Nm-2

Pressure Due To A Liquid Column=Height X Density X Gravity